Advanced Bash-Scripting Guide:
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# Chapter 12. Command Substitution

Command substitution reassigns the output of a command [1] or even multiple commands; it literally plugs the command output into another context. [2]

The classic form of command substitution uses backquotes (`...`). Commands within backquotes (backticks) generate command-line text.

    script_name=`basename $0`
    echo "The name of this script is $script_name."

The output of commands can be used as arguments to another command, to set a variable, and even for generating the argument list in a for loop.

    rm `cat filename`   # "filename" contains a list of files to delete.
    #
    # S. C. points out that "arg list too long" error might result.
    # Better is              xargs rm -- < filename
    # ( -- covers those cases where "filename" begins with a "-" )

    textfile_listing=`ls *.txt`
    # Variable contains names of all *.txt files in current working directory.
    echo $textfile_listing

    textfile_listing2=$(ls *.txt)   # The alternative form of command substitution.
    echo $textfile_listing2
    # Same result.

    # A possible problem with putting a list of files into a single string
    # is that a newline may creep in.
    #
    # A safer way to assign a list of files to a parameter is with an array.
    #      shopt -s nullglob    # If no match, filename expands to nothing.
    #      textfile_listing=( *.txt )
    #
    # Thanks, S.C.

| Command substitution invokes a subshell.

| Command substitution may result in word splitting.
    COMMAND `echo a b`     # 2 args: a and b

    COMMAND "`echo a b`"   # 1 arg: "a b"

    COMMAND `echo`         # no arg

    COMMAND "`echo`"       # one empty arg

    # Thanks, S.C.
Even when there is no word splitting, command substitution can remove trailing newlines.
    # cd "`pwd`"  # This should always work.
    # However...

    mkdir 'dir with trailing newline
    '

    cd 'dir with trailing newline
    '

    cd "`pwd`"  # Error message:
    # bash: cd: /tmp/file with trailing newline: No such file or directory

    cd "$PWD"   # Works fine.

    old_tty_setting=$(stty -g)   # Save old terminal setting.
    echo "Hit a key "
    stty -icanon -echo           # Disable "canonical" mode for terminal.
                                 # Also, disable *local* echo.
    key=$(dd bs=1 count=1 2> /dev/null)   # Using 'dd' to get a keypress.
    stty "$old_tty_setting"      # Restore old setting.
    echo "You hit ${#key} key."  # ${#variable} = number of characters in $variable
    #
    # Hit any key except RETURN, and the output is "You hit 1 key."
    # Hit RETURN, and it's "You hit 0 key."
    # The newline gets eaten in the command substitution.

    #Code snippet by Stéphane Chazelas.

| Using echo to output an unquoted variable set with command substitution removes trailing newlines characters from the output of the reassigned command(s). This can cause unpleasant surprises.
    dir_listing=`ls -l`
    echo $dir_listing     # unquoted

    # Expecting a nicely ordered directory listing.

    # However, what you get is:
    # total 3 -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 30 May 13 17:15 1.txt -rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo
    # bozo 51 May 15 20:57 t2.sh -rwxr-xr-x 1 bozo bozo 217 Mar 5 21:13 wi.sh

    # The newlines disappeared.

    echo "$dir_listing"   # quoted
    # -rw-rw-r--    1 bozo       30 May 13 17:15 1.txt
    # -rw-rw-r--    1 bozo       51 May 15 20:57 t2.sh
    # -rwxr-xr-x    1 bozo      217 Mar  5 21:13 wi.sh

Command substitution even permits setting a variable to the contents of a file, using either redirection or the cat command.

    variable1=`<file1`      #  Set "variable1" to contents of "file1".
    variable2=`cat file2`   #  Set "variable2" to contents of "file2".
                            #  This, however, forks a new process,
                            #+ so the line of code executes slower than the above version.

    #  Note that the variables may contain embedded whitespace,
    #+ or even (horrors), control characters.

    #  It is not necessary to explicitly assign a variable.
    echo "` <$0`"           # Echoes the script itself to stdout.

    #  Excerpts from system file, /etc/rc.d/rc.sysinit
    #+ (on a Red Hat Linux installation)

    if [ -f /fsckoptions ]; then
            fsckoptions=`cat /fsckoptions`
    ...
    fi
    #
    #
    if [ -e "/proc/ide/${disk[$device]}/media" ] ; then
                 hdmedia=`cat /proc/ide/${disk[$device]}/media`
    ...
    fi
    #
    #
    if [ ! -n "`uname -r | grep -- "-"`" ]; then
           ktag="`cat /proc/version`"
    ...
    fi
    #
    #
    if [ $usb = "1" ]; then
        sleep 5
        mouseoutput=`cat /proc/bus/usb/devices 2>/dev/null|grep -E "^I.*Cls=03.*Prot=02"`
        kbdoutput=`cat /proc/bus/usb/devices 2>/dev/null|grep -E "^I.*Cls=03.*Prot=01"`
    ...
    fi

| Do not set a variable to the contents of a long text file unless you have a very good reason for doing so. Do not set a variable to the contents of a binary file, even as a joke. Example 12-1. Stupid script tricks
    #!/bin/bash
    # stupid-script-tricks.sh: Don't try this at home, folks.
    # From "Stupid Script Tricks," Volume I.

    dangerous_variable=`cat /boot/vmlinuz`   # The compressed Linux kernel itself.

    echo "string-length of \$dangerous_variable = ${#dangerous_variable}"
    # string-length of $dangerous_variable = 794151
    # (Does not give same count as 'wc -c /boot/vmlinuz'.)

    # echo "$dangerous_variable"
    # Don't try this! It would hang the script.

    #  The document author is aware of no useful applications for
    #+ setting a variable to the contents of a binary file.

    exit 0
Notice that a buffer overrun does not occur. This is one instance where an interpreted language, such as Bash, provides more protection from programmer mistakes than a compiled language.

Command substitution permits setting a variable to the output of a loop. The key to this is grabbing the output of an echo command within the loop.

Example 12-2. Generating a variable from a loop

    #!/bin/bash
    # csubloop.sh: Setting a variable to the output of a loop.

    variable1=`for i in 1 2 3 4 5
    do
      echo -n "$i"                 #  The 'echo' command is critical
    done`                          #+ to command substitution here.

    echo "variable1 = $variable1"  # variable1 = 12345

    i=0
    variable2=`while [ "$i" -lt 10 ]
    do
      echo -n "$i"                 # Again, the necessary 'echo'.
      let "i += 1"                 # Increment.
    done`

    echo "variable2 = $variable2"  # variable2 = 0123456789

    #  Demonstrates that it's possible to embed a loop
    #+ within a variable declaration.

    exit 0

| The $(...) form has superseded backticks for command substitution.
    output=$(sed -n /"$1"/p $file)   # From "grp.sh"	example.

    # Setting a variable to the contents of a text file.
    File_contents1=$(cat $file1)
    File_contents2=$(<$file2)        # Bash permits this also.
The $(...) form of command substitution treats a double backslash in a different way than `...`.
    bash$ echo `echo \\`

    bash$ echo $(echo \\)
    \
The $(...) form of command substitution permits nesting. [3]
    word_count=$( wc -w $(echo * | awk '{print $8}') )
Or, for something a bit more elaborate . . . Example 12-3. Finding anagrams
    #!/bin/bash
    # agram2.sh
    # Example of nested command substitution.

    #  Uses "anagram" utility
    #+ that is part of the author's "yawl" word list package.
    #  http://ibiblio.org/pub/Linux/libs/yawl-0.3.2.tar.gz
    #  http://bash.deta.in/yawl-0.3.2.tar.gz

    E_NOARGS=86
    E_BADARG=87
    MINLEN=7

    if [ -z "$1" ]
    then
      echo "Usage $0 LETTERSET"
      exit $E_NOARGS         # Script needs a command-line argument.
    elif [ ${#1} -lt $MINLEN ]
    then
      echo "Argument must have at least $MINLEN letters."
      exit $E_BADARG
    fi

    FILTER='.......'         # Must have at least 7 letters.
    #       1234567
    Anagrams=( $(echo $(anagram $1 | grep $FILTER) ) )
    #          $(     $(  nested command sub.    ) )
    #        (              array assignment         )

    echo
    echo "${#Anagrams[*]}  7+ letter anagrams found"
    echo
    echo ${Anagrams[0]}      # First anagram.
    echo ${Anagrams[1]}      # Second anagram.
                             # Etc.

    # echo "${Anagrams[*]}"  # To list all the anagrams in a single line . . .

    #  Look ahead to the Arrays chapter for enlightenment on
    #+ what's going on here.

    # See also the agram.sh script for an exercise in anagram finding.

    exit $?

Examples of command substitution in shell scripts:

1. Example 11-7

2. Example 11-26

3. Example 9-16

4. Example 16-3

5. Example 16-22

6. Example 16-17

7. Example 16-54

8. Example 11-13

9. Example 11-10

10. Example 16-32

11. Example 20-8

12. Example A-16

13. Example 29-3

14. Example 16-47

15. Example 16-48

16. Example 16-49

### Notes

[1] | For purposes of command substitution, a command may be an external system command, an internal scripting builtin, or even a script function.
[2] | In a more technically correct sense, command substitution extracts the `stdout` of a command, then assigns it to a variable using the = operator.
[3] | In fact, nesting with backticks is also possible, but only by escaping the inner backticks, as John Default points out.
    word_count=` wc -w \`echo * | awk '{print $8}'\` `

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